BB 01-16-26

BRADFORD BULLETIN

VOLUME XVIII, ISSUE 24

Jan 16, 2026

FROM THE OFFICE

IMPORTANT NOTES:

Hot lunch: ** Click here to order **
Admissions and Enrollment Notes:
- Applications for new students are open! If you have other children you want to enroll at Bradford, please complete an application ASAP!
- Students returning for 26/27 school year:
  - For rising Kindergarten students or any student who has not received the NC Opportunity Scholarship: Mark your calendars to complete an application in February.
  - FACTS: We are beginning the transition from TADS and Educate to FACTS. Updates and instructions will be sent in emails dedicated to that topic.
  - Updated Immunization Record Requirement: Students who will be in Kindergarten, 7th grade or 12th grade for the 26/27 school year are required to get updated immunizations. Please schedule a doctor’s appointment. You can upload them to TADS or send them to the office. This will be due before the first day of school. Plan ahead!
- Students who will not be returning for the 26/27 school year:
  - Submit a letter in writing to the office no later than February 15th.
  - Notices that come after February 15th are subject to a $500 contract opt-out fee.

LOWER SCHOOL IMPORTANT NOTES:

FROM MRS. MITCHELL: Congratulations to the 4th grade spelling bee finalists! Theo Burnside, Allison Tolentino, Sarai King, and Riley Distefano

UPPER SCHOOL IMPORTANT NOTES:

FROM DR. SMITH:
- Our 8th grade interviews begin next week and will conclude the last week in January. Our 9th and 10th graders will be taking the CLT on Feb. 4 and the 11th and 12th graders will take it on Feb. 19.

Bradford’s basketball teams are hosting four games at the MACC next Friday afternoon! We will also be celebrating senior night as we honor six seniors from our basketball teams! Adults are charged a $5 admission price, non-Bradford students get a discount ($3), and Bradford students and teachers may attend for free! Concessions will be available at the games. Come out and enjoy the evening while supporting our basketball teams!

UPCOMING

NEXT WEEK:

M 1/19: MLK day – no school – Bradford Camp Day – for registered students
W 1/21 – F 1/30: 8th grade Rhetoric Admissions Interviews
F 1/23:
- 1:00 Spelling Bee 4th – 8th at upper school campus
- HOME basketball games at MACC
  - 3:30 MS Girls basketball
  - 4:30 JV Boys basketball
  - 5:45 V Girls basketball
  - 7:00 V Boys basketball

IN THE NEAR FUTURE:

Week of 2/2: Senior Thesis Pre-panels
Wed 2/4:
- 8:00 CLT10 for 9th
- 10:15 CLT10 for 10th
Thurs 2/5: Coffee and Conversation
Fri 2/13: Teacher workday – no school
Sun, 2/15: Opt-out deadline for families not returning to Bradford for the 26/27 school year
Mon, 2/16: Presidents Day – no school
Thurs, 2/19:
- 8:00 CLT for 11th
- 10:15 CLT for 12th
Thurs 2/26: Upper School Career Day
Thurs, 3/5: Coffee and Conversation
Mon 3/9 – Thurs 3/19: SENIOR TRIP TO ROME
Wed 3/11: Soccer Tournament lower school
Thurs, 3/12: Upper School Performing Arts Night
Fri, 3/13: Last day of Q3. Report cards
Week of 3/16: SPRING BREAK

FROM THE TEACHER’S DESK

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

Transitional Kindergarten (Mrs. Grubb and Mrs. Weber)

We had a wonderful week in TK! It definitely felt more like winter this week and students were able to take a walk on the trail looking for signs of winter. In math this week, students practiced finding numbers on a number line while identifying before, after and in between. Students also were able to shop in a pretend TK store and practiced paying for items up to 10 cents. Students also practiced copying and identifying patterns. Our letters of the week were D and P. We practiced forming these letters correctly and identifying the sounds they make. A few of our centers included: an experiment to see if items sink or float, telling a collective story, identifying and filling in rhyming words, a letter hunt, creating sentences with nouns, and making signs. We read about Jesus being tempted in the desert by Satan and calling his 12 disciples. Next week we will learn more about prayer and the Sermon on the Mount. Kindergarten screenings will also begin next week.

Lower School Art (Mrs. Knight)

3rd & 4th

Students continued sketching their winter snowman scene this week. We moved onto coloring and shading. We learned that shadow is darkness cast by light onto the ground. Shading is darkness on the object. We are using various techniques to make our snowman look more realistic.

Lower School P.E. (Mrs. Bennington)

K-4th

Students did a great job in P.E. this week following directions, working as a team, and working on soccer skills/drills.

Lower School Music (Mrs. Bennington)

K-4th

Students worked hard this week reviewing the first verse to our new hymn for the quarter, “Lo In The Grave He Lay”. Students also started working on the second verse. Students discussed what the term, style, means in music and how that is represented in the hymn. Students also listened to some of Dvorak’s Symphony 9. Third and fourth grade students worked on recorder exercise utilizing the notes G, A, and B.

Kindergarten (Mrs. Rivera and Miss Burdeshaw)

This Week:

Our kindergarten scholars had a wonderful second week back! In math, we reviewed two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes. We learned how to identify top, middle, and bottom, above and below, and over, on, and under. In phonics, we started our new reader, Pepin the Not Big, and our very first spelling list! In history, we discussed Constantine and the Edict of Milan. He was known for being the first Christian Roman emperor and ending the persecution of Christians by legalizing Christianity. In art, we learned about the grey scale and how there are varying shades of grey when drawing/shading. In science, we continued our unit on planets and outer space. The students are loving the planet song we’ve learned! We hope you have a wonderful long weekend!

Memory Work: John 3:16 and review

1st Grade (Mrs. Cantaffa & Mrs. Smith)

This Week:

The students were immersed in tales of Camelot this week with their reading of A Tale of Sir Galahad. They learned that character traits such as chivalry, bravery, strength, and purity come from God. Art was tied into our story as the kids were given clay to mold a “hydra” or a fish that was in the book. In science they learned the Cloud Song (to the tune of The Farmer in The Dell). Ask your child to sing it to you. They also learned about different types of clouds and had the opportunity to make 4 different types of clouds out of cotton balls. We finished up chapter six in math this week with reviews, tests, and assessments and started chapter 7. The students learned to use a model to count tens and ones, use patterns to count and order numbers, and how to make groups of tens and ones. The students enjoyed using their “Explode the Code” book in grammar this week. The kids had a great time with so many “hands-on” activities this week!

Memory Work:

Psalm 67:1-7

Upcoming:

Rodeo Round Up! 100 Days of School – Friday January 30th

2nd Grade (Miss Verroi & Mrs. Eng)

This Week:

Our words of wisdom from Solomon this week encourage us to be sure our words match our deeds, to use gentle speech, and to not overindulge. We hope as the students memorize these verses they will ponder making wise choices. We are enjoying the antics of Mr. Popper’s Penguins and learning some facts about penguins along the way. Latin is a favorite for many of the students, and we enjoy discovering the many derivatives from one Latin word. From pes (foot) we get pedestrian, pedal, pedestal, centipede and impede. In science we continue to study the classification of all living things and will focus on the animal kingdom this quarter. We will focus on the five categories of vertebrates (mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians) and two of the invertebrate categories (insects and arachnids). We did our first of many Animal Hunts. The Animal and Habitat Project details and individual assignments are in the red folder. We hope the students will enjoy working on their Projects – please assist them to research in books to find the information needed and help them practice sharing this information without reading off their sheet.

Upcoming Project:

Animal and Habitat Project Due Wednesday, February 18

3rd Grade (Mrs. Clark and Mrs. Meredith)

This Week

Through the account of Nehemiah and his return to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls, we learned that anything is possible when we align our lives with God’s will and plan. God alone can accomplish the impossible. He granted Nehemiah favor with King Artaxerxes and even financed his entire journey. In Latin, we studied various sentence patterns and practiced writing and translating them into English. In math, we learned to apply the order of operations to find the correct solution by following a specific sequence: working with grouping symbols first, then exponents, followed by multiplication and division, and finally addition and subtraction, moving from left to right when operations have equal priority. Throughout the week, we were reminded that when we face difficult challenges, Nehemiah’s example teaches us to keep our focus on God, who is our source of hope and strength. When we do, we can find rest as we take refuge in His constant and unfailing love.

Upcoming Memory Work:

Psalm 19: 5-6

4th Grade (Mrs. Graham and Mrs. Rankin)

This Week

This week, we explored the Magna Carta and its lasting significance, particularly the foundational idea that no one — not even a king — is above the law. In Math, we introduced fractions, focusing on number lines and equivalent fractions. Students applied previously learned concepts, particularly multiples and factors, to work through and solve fraction problems. We also held our fourth-grade spelling bee, where students demonstrated their spelling skills and confidence. From this, we now have our four champions who will represent our class at next week’s spelling bee at the Upper Campus. In writing, students had the opportunity to read their Burlington Writers stories to a partner. This peer-sharing time encouraged thoughtful listening, positive feedback, and constructive suggestions, helping students refine and strengthen their writing. Science was another highlight as we explored matter through a sink-or-float experiment. Several results surprised the students and led to thoughtful discussion. Ultimately, this investigation reminded us that God did not create the world randomly, but with order and consistency—an order we can observe, study, and seek to understand. It was a week filled with deep learning, creativity, and collaboration!

Upcoming Memory Work:

Catechism 91 and Matt 5: 6 – 9

Upcoming Events:

1/23 Spelling Bee at Upper Campus
1/29 Burlington Writers Club submissions

LOGIC SCHOOL

Mrs. Bennington

5th-6th Band

Fifth and sixth grade Band students combined with Choir students again this week to continue our musical unit with, “The Sound of Music”. Students discussed the way music is used in a musical as both background music and as a way to tell parts of the story. We also discussed the story being told and some of the historical background behind the musical. We will be diving back into our regular lessons next week. Students, please remember to bring your instruments and band books with you to class.

7th-8th Band

Seventh and eighth grade students did an amazing job performing at the Christmas Concert! Students worked so hard and played beautifully! I am so very proud of all of you and can’t wait to see what you can do next.

Mrs. Johnston

5th – 8th Choir

5th & 6th Grade Choirs wrapped up The Sound of Music. We discussed character development as well as significant details regarding the events surrounding the story of the von Trapp family. Next week we will resume normal classes.
7th/8th Choir did a lovely job in the Christmas Concert! I am so proud of you all, and look forward to what this next semester holds.

5th Grade (Mrs. LaTour and Miss Johnston)

This Week

This week in 5th grade has been full of exciting learning across all subjects! In reading, we have continued our journey through The Witch of Blackbird Pond. We explored Kit’s growing struggles to fit into Puritan society, her developing friendships, and the increasing tension between personal freedom and strict community expectations. In math, we began a new chapter and officially launched into multiplying fractions. Students are learning how to model fraction multiplication and understand what it really means when we multiply parts of a whole. In history, we are studying how Parliament acted unjustly toward the colonies, examining key laws such as the Quartering Act, Stamp Act, and the Intolerable Acts that followed the Boston Tea Party. Students have been writing about the Boston Tea Party this week, focusing on causes, consequences, and colonial perspectives. We also wrapped up our class spelling bee! Congratulations to our top four spellers who will advance to the school-wide spelling bee next Friday! We are looking forward to cheering them on. Finally, we are excited to receive all of the typed Burlington Writers Club (BWC) stories we’ve been working on for quite some time. Parents have been emailed with details, and we can’t wait to see the students’ final drafts. It’s been a great week of growth and hard work in 5th grade!

Memory Work:

Philippians 2:3-4

Mrs. Knight

5th Art

Fifth grade art students finalized planning and began sketching on the SAR posters. Students sought to determine the spacing of their artwork, title, and details on the posterboard.

6th Grade (Mrs. McDorman and Miss Pugsley)

6th Reading and Literature

We will continue reading about Eric Liddell, summarizing each chapter and preparing to discuss what our own autobiographies might include. So far, we’ve learned about his early life as the son of missionaries in China, his move to Scotland for school, and how his faith and discipline began shaping the way he lived and competed.

6th Grammar and Writing

This week in grammar, we practiced using direct objects for clear sentence meaning. In writing, we strengthened paragraphs by using a mix of simple (with compound subjects or verbs), compound, complex, and compound-complex sentence structures.

6th Bible

We are continuing our reading in the gospel of Luke. This week we have read through Jesus’s entry into Jerusalem. The students are memorizing 1 John 2.

6th History

This week in history, we learned how Black leadership emerged in the South through people who served and strengthened their communities. George Washington Carver was a great example, using science to help farmers improve their crops and care for the land.

6th Science

This week in Science we reviewed what we learned about the five kingdoms and biological organization. We had a quiz Thursday!

6th Logic

This week we have jumped into Assumption Fallacies! We have been learning about how regularly people make assumptions about the world around them. While many of those assumptions are based on lived experience and may be accurate, they can still cause problems when we aren’t aware of them!

Mrs. Crotts

6th Math

6th graders are very quick to recall and also tackle how to divide fractions, including translating mixed numbers to improper fractions in order to complete the problems.

Mrs. Wright

6th Latin

This week the students’ continued their study of Capitulum VI. They were introduced to the unique way that Latin expresses in/to/from a town and to the passive use of the verb. The students’ translating skills continue to grow stronger as the story, grammar, and vocabulary from previous chapters continue to build upon itself.

Mrs. Palmer

6th Art

We reviewed our artist of the quarter, Winslow Homer. Students will take a quiz on this next week. We also began learning about watercolor technique focusing on water to paint ratio, translucency and several methods of application.

Dr. Wright

7th Omnibus

We are continuing to work on our Burlington Writers’ creative writing, with peer editing this week. Our study of ancient Greek tragic form continues. We have read Oedipus Rex and are suitably upset. Our in-class spelling bee was this Friday.

Mrs. Frueh

7th Science

This week, we looked at where on Earth’s surface earthquakes are most likely to occur and what causes them. Students are also working hard to put the finishing touches on the final drafts of their soil lab report. These are due on January 22nd.

7th Pre-Algebra

This week we advanced our understanding of proportions, ratios and percentages. Now that students have a solid understanding of these concepts, we started applying them to more advanced problems such as mixed number ratios or solving for an unknown in a system of similar triangles.

Mrs. Palmer

7th Art

We reviewed our artist of the quarter, Winslow Homer. Students will take a quiz on this next week. We also began learning about watercolor technique focusing on water to paint ratio, translucency and several methods of application.

Mrs. Wright

7th Latin

This week the students’ continued their study of Capitulum VI. They were introduced to the unique way that Latin expresses in/to/from a town and to the passive use of the verb. The students’ translating skills continue to grow stronger as the story, grammar, and vocabulary from previous chapters continue to build upon itself.

7th Logic

The students moved into their study of Unit II in looking at fallacies of Presumption. We spent both classes reading and working through what this category includes and means, learning new words like presuppositions and induction.

Dr. Wright

8th Omnibus

We are continuing to work on our Burlington Writers’ creative writing, with peer editing this week. Our study of the rise of Charlemage has begun. We have finished Fellowship of the Ring and have begun Augustine’s Confessions. Our in-class spelling bee was this Friday.

Mrs. Wright

8th Latin

This week the students’ continued their study of Capitulum VI. They were introduced to the unique way that Latin expresses in/to/from a town and to the passive use of the verb. The students’ translating skills continue to grow stronger as the story, grammar, and vocabulary from previous chapters continue to build upon itself.

Mrs. Frueh

8th Science

Our focus this week was on the force of friction. We discussed the difference between static friction and kinetic friction. The students put their learning into practice as they continued to work on their mousetrap cars, focusing their efforts on reducing friction within their design in order to increase efficiency.

8th Algebra I

We continued this week with solving and graphing inequalities and absolute value equations. Many of the skills learned in the first semester are coming to bear as we build on these skills and apply them to different situations.

Mrs. Palmer

8th Art

We reviewed our artist of the quarter, Winslow Homer. Students will take a quiz on this next week. We also began learning about oil pastels and several methods for using them.

Mr. Crotts

8th Logic

We listened to arguments made before the U. S. Supreme Court on transgender athlete ban.
We have studied the four categorical statements of logic and have begun to note their relationship to each other via the square of opposition.

RHETORIC SCHOOL

From the COLLEGE COUNSELING Office:

9th-12th:

Career Day is coming! Thursday, February 26, from 12:30-2:30 high schoolers will have the privilege of hearing from a dozen individuals and learn what they do, the education they needed to work in the field and how God is glorified by their career. Students will hear a brief overview and then have the time to visit in small groups with each presenter. This is the time for students to listen and observe what people do to make a living and to use their God-given skills and also how to do so.

Seniors

Seniors are encouraged to visit colleges of interest if they have not done so already. It is not too late to apply to second, third, & fourth choices of colleges if the number one pick of colleges does not work out.
Seniors take the CLT(Classic Learning Test) at Bradford on Thursday, February 19 at 8 AM. This test is similar to Bradford’s curriculum and is gaining recognition at major universities as well as at Christian colleges and classical colleges. It is recognized at all colleges in Florida. Students who score over 80 can receive scholarship money that repeats each year and students who make a perfect score can receive full tuition at select colleges.

Juniors

Juniors are tasked with taking the ACT during the school year in order to receive the NC Opportunity Scholarship. (⅓ of the junior class has taken it; ⅓ of the junior class has signed up to take it and ⅓ of the junior class needs to sign up and take it! act.org ) Also, it is recommended that students take the SAT in the spring of their junior year and take it at least one other time as colleges accept “super scoring”–the best of each subject’s scores over all of the tests taken
Juniors take the CLT (Classic Learning Test) at Bradford on Thursday, February 19 at 10:15 AM. This test is similar to Bradford’s curriculum and is gaining recognition at major universities as well as at Christian colleges and classical colleges. It is recognized at all colleges in Florida. Students who score over 80 can receive scholarship money that can repeat each year and students who make a perfect score can receive full tuition at select colleges.

Sophomores

Sophomores take the CLT (Classic Learning Test) at Bradford on Wednesday, February 4 at 10:15 AM. This test is similar to Bradford’s curriculum and is gaining recognition at major universities as well as at Christian colleges and classical colleges. It is recognized at all colleges in Florida. Students who score over 80 can receive scholarship money that can repeat each year and students who make a perfect score can receive full tuition at select colleges.

Freshman

Freshman take the CLT (Classic Learning Test) at Bradford on Wednesday, February 4 at 8:00 AM. This test is similar to Bradford’s curriculum and is gaining recognition at major universities as well as at Christian colleges and classical colleges. It is recognized at all colleges in Florida. Students who score over 80 can receive scholarship money that can repeat each year and students who make a perfect score can receive full tuition at select colleges.

Mrs. Palmer

9th Spanish

We wrapped up our current chapter and students took a test this week. We will begin with new vocabulary and grammar next week through reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Coach Johnston

9th History

Students have been studying the Antebellum Era in order to understand America’s road to disunion. This week we covered the Missouri compromise, Nat Turner’s rebellion, the SC Nullification Crisis and previewed key events coming up in Texas.

Ms. Oldham

9th Rhetoric I:

Students have been peer editing the rough drafts of their research papers. This is an important skill that will benefit them greatly.

Dr. Byrd

9th Bible Survey

This week we finished the book of Proverbs and began the book of Ecclesiastes. We will begin the Major Prophets next week.
Book Analysis Project due Feb. 18.
Memory Verses: Psalm 1:6, Proverbs 3:5-6

Mrs. Frueh

9th Biology

Our focus this week was on cellular respiration, the metabolic process that occurs in all living cells in order to break down glucose for the production of energy in the form of ATP. The cell then uses this energy to power everything from muscle contraction to cell signaling, mitosis to active transport. Without cellular respiration, there would be no life. As we learned the complex processes of cellular respiration, it was more evident than ever that life is the result of a perfect, omniscient, omnipotent Designer, the Almighty God.

Mrs. Frueh

9th Geometry

We wrapped up our first unit of the new semester by finding ways to prove similar triangles. The students realized that many of the skills they learned in proving congruency can also be applied to prove similarity.

Mrs. Crotts

9th Literature

9th grade students learned about Louisa May Alcott, who was the author of Little Women. Her father was a transcendentalist–rooted in Hinduism. Her family endured much financial hardship motivating her to earn an income from her writing. After reading the work, students will write a comparison essay of transcendentalism and the Bible. Burlington Writer’s Club entries are due Thursday, January 20.

Mrs. Fairchild

9th – 11th Art Foundations

It is time for the Art Mock Trial! The students were introduced to Hans Holbein’s painting of The Ambassadors completed in 1533. The students will be arguing whether the painting is making a statement about the division between Church and State or the division between the Protestants and Catholics. The students are just diving into their research and working to begin to wrap their minds around this incredible masterpiece that has caused so much debate among historians and art experts.

Mrs. Bennington

9th-11th Band

Advanced band students did an amazing job performing at the Christmas Concert! Students worked so hard and played beautifully! I am so very proud of all of you and can’t wait to see what you can do next. It is a privilege to teach all of you!

Mrs. Johnston

Bradford Chorale

Congratulations on a lovely concert. Thank you for your hard work and enthusiasm throughout this semester, and especially these past couple weeks as we revived Christmas concert material. You all are what makes Bradford Chorale possible, and you brought a beautiful concert this week. I look forward to diving into new material on Tuesday with you!

Dr. James

10th Chemistry

This week we began a discussion of the mole and its uses. The mole is a number of atoms or molecules that is used to convert back and forth between a number of molecules and the mass of that substance in grams.
Next week we will continue our discussion of the mole, applying it to elemental analyses, theoretical yields, and actual yields.

Mrs. Palmer

10th Spanish

We wrapped up our current chapter and students took a test this week. We will begin using new vocabulary and grammar next week through reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Mrs. Byrd

10th Algebra II

We concluded a unit on complex numbers and began a study of polynomial functions.

Mrs. Crotts

10th Literature

10th grade students were introduced to the author Edith Hamilton. She wrote the book Mythology in her later years after struggling to find a comprehensive resource on Ancient Greek, Roman and Norse mythology. It is a clear and fast read and a great resource to introduce or review the mythology “family trees.” Students are to choose one of three options–artistic, dramatic or written to summarize some of the featured mythological characters discussed. This is due January 30. Also, to note the students’ Burlington Writer’s Club poetry and fictional entry is due January 23.

Miss Oldham

10th Rhetoric II

Students have begun to discuss the three types of rhetoric. They will be delivering a speech based on each of the three types. We also had the pleasure of having Mr. Chris Tara come to speak about starting a debate club with the sophomores.

Coach Johnston

10th History

Students completed their review from last quarter material on Sparta and Athens. We particularly considered how several reformers developed and created democracy in Athens. Students will take a test next Wednesday comparing and contrasting the key city states of Athens and Sparta.

Dr. Smith

10th Historical Theology

Students have been reviewing the subject content that we were going over at the end of first semester–the doctrine of salvation as it was worked out in the 5th century A. D. between Pelagius and Augustine.

11th Precalculus

We learned how to use a unit circle to evaluate trig functions of common angles. We also learned how to use our knowledge of special triangles from geometry to evaluate common trig functions without using the unit circle. Another topic for the week was learning how to use basic trig identities to rearrange and simplify trig expressions.

Miss Oldham

11th Literature

Students have begun Romeo and Juliet and are delighted by this classic morality play.

Mrs. Wright

11th NT Greek

It was wonderful to welcome back the Greek students this week. We began the week with a day translating a portion of I John. This was an excellent way to dust the cobwebs off from break and reignite their “Greek” brains again. The students did well and it would be encouraging if you, the parents, could take a little time to ask them to show you their translation in order to celebrate what all they have learned! We spent the first semester in the “world of nouns” and now this week we embark on a journey into the exciting study of the Greek verb, where the real power of the language lies.

Mr. Webster

11th History

This week we discussed the kings of England and France in the High Middle Ages. The students also began thinking about their class play this quarter and planning some of the details.

Dr. Smith

11th-12th Apologetics

Students have been reviewing the material from the end of the first semester, which was the first 70 pages of James Sire’s book The Universe Next Door. In those pages Sire introduces the worldview concept and then analyzes Christian Theism, Deism and Naturalism according to the eight diagnostic questions that every worldview answers.

Coach Johnston

12th History

Students reviewed material from last quarter on the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Seniors will take a test on that material next Wednesday.

Ms. Oldham

12th Literature

The students have begun Faulkner’s classic, As I Lay Dying.

12th Rhetoric III

The seniors are preparing for their prepanels in three weeks. The prepanels is the first time the students are delivering their theses to an audience, so this is a tension-filled time for them. Please keep them in your prayers.

Mrs. Byrd

12th Calculus

We’ve launched into our final main topic for the course – Integration. We began by considering the idea of area under the curve as an accumulation function. Riemann sums are another helpful way to visualize finding the area. Students learned how to transition from discrete summation notation for area to continuous integral notation for area.